An attentive observer, looking into the starry sky, can see a small reddish rounded spot. This object attracts attention with mystery and relentless hope - to find the very “thread” that will reveal the great secrets of the Universe.

Planet parameters

The first known observations of the heavenly neighbor were carried out during the time of the Pharaohs in Egypt, one and a half thousand years BC. Ancient astronomers managed to detect the “reverse” movement of the planet and determine its place in the horizon between the Earth, the asteroid belt and Jupiter.

Mars is one of the planets of the solar system, located in its fourth orbit, immediately after the Earth. Its sizes:

• radius - 3396 kilometers (53% of the radius of our planet);
• the length of the equator is 21344 km;
• surface area of ​​144.37 million square kilometers (28.3% of the earth's surface).

The mass of the Red Planet is 6.4171 × 1020 tons, which is 10.7% of the amount of Earth’s substance. In size, it is in seventh place among the satellites of our luminary.

Mars revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit with a very significant eccentricity of 0.0934. That is why the distance between them during the period of circulation varies by 42.6 million kilometers. These celestial bodies are now approaching, then moving away from each other.

A number of physical parameters

• The average density of Martian soil is 3930 kg per cubic meter. This is less than the proportion of what is under our feet by 28.7%.
• The range of temperature fluctuations in the atmosphere of Mars reaches 188 ° C. Winter cold reaches -153 ° C; in summer, the surface can warm up, reaching + 35 ° C.
• A body in a state of free fall will experience acceleration, 3.711 m / s per second, which equals 0.378 g.
• The atmosphere of the planet is very thin, the magnetic field is weak.
• The axis of Mars is tilted at an angle of 25.2 degrees. Therefore, spring replaces winter, summer - autumn.

Structure

The structure of Mars is a classic planet.

The structure of Mars is such that the center is much more dense than the surrounding layers. As for the crust and mantle, then, as can be seen from the table, they are two times lighter. The average density of the planet indicates its rocky structure.

Chemical composition

• Bark: 21% silicon, 12.7% iron, 3.1% sulfur.
• The mantle is saturated with sulphurous iron. The metallic iron content is low.
• The core consists mainly of iron and sulfur.

Orbit and rotation

The planet revolves around the Sun in an elongated elliptical orbit, at a speed of 24 km / sec. Therefore, the distance between them varies from 206.6 to 249.2 million kilometers. The circulation period is 687 Earth days or 1.88 years. Martian day - “salts” are 37.5-40 minutes longer than ours.

The planet owes such orbital parameters to the gravitational forces of its cosmic neighbors. According to scientists, earlier Mars had a more rounded orbit. Perhaps even with less eccentricity than the Earth’s orbit.

The axis of Mars is tilted by 25.9-25.19 degrees, so the seasons succeed each other. Although their duration is different. For example, in the Northern Hemisphere, the warm season (spring plus summer) lasts 371 sol.

Interesting fact: at night on Mars blizzards rage. Gusts of wind pick up falling snowflakes, creating real storms.

Mars temperature

Due to the absence of a decent layer of the atmosphere, the surface of the planet following the Earth at the exit from the Solar system, and therefore less heated, is very cooled. The average annual temperature ranges: - 50 °; - 60 ° C. There are facts of warming the poles and the equator to + 35 ° C. But this does not change the overall meteorological picture.

Atmosphere

Considering our cosmic neighbor as a potential owner of living conditions, scientists carefully studied its atmosphere. It turned out a lot of interesting things.But, as is often the case in science, a number of optimistic forecasts had to be abandoned. And that's why.
The atmosphere of the planet is extremely rarefied - 1% of the atmospheric pressure of the Earth. On our planet, in order to obtain Martian conditions (in terms of the force of the gas-air column), you need to climb 35 kilometers.

The gas shell of Mars is 95% carbon dioxide, but due to its subtlety, the greenhouse effect is not observed on the planet. However, there is water. Although not in a liquid state. Huge polar “caps” H2O saturate the air with water vapor. Researchers are confident that they will find the "sea" inside the planet. Perhaps even at shallow depths.

Interestingly, a thin layer of the atmosphere of Mars determines quite terrestrial climatic conditions. There also winds blow, dust storms sweep; there are fogs and terrible frosts (sometimes up to one and a half hundred degrees Celsius).

Atmosphere leak

More recently, the main hypothesis of an atmospheric leak from the surface of the Red Planet was the unproven fact of a collision with a cosmic body. Time has made its own adjustments. In 2013, the interplanetary station MAVEN conducted a probe of Mars. As a result of research, much has been revealed.

Billions of years ago, the planet was warm and humid. There were reservoirs that could very well become the habitat of living things. 4.2 billion years ago, for unknown reasons, Mars lost a magnetic field. An atmosphere leaked into outer space. It continues today. True, at a much lower speed - 100 grams per second.
During solar storms, under the influence of solar wind flows, the process of loss of the gas layer increases significantly.

If no changes happen, then in a couple of billion years the atmosphere of our neighbor in space will disappear.

Mars surface

For all the time of observation and practical research of the surface of the Red Planet, a rich history has accumulated. It is worth stopping at its stages.

Mars Observation History and Optical Illusions

Canals on Mars

XIX century. The beginning of large-scale astronomical observations. The Italian scientist Giovanni Schiaparelli claims the existence of channels surrounding the planet. Theory is widely supported by academia. A map of Mars was dotted with hundreds of thin lines with sonorous names.

The most interesting thing is that the appearance of such geometric structures was explained by the intelligent engineering activity of aliens. "Active Martians use the meltwater of the polar glaciers for their economic activities." Today, this statement causes only a smile, and then even venerable scientists shared a similar point of view.

Indeed, there are objects on our celestial neighbor resembling straight lines, but with a slight optical resolution of the telescopes. In 1971-1972, the Mariner-9 spacecraft, with its clear images, covering 85% of the surface, dispelled this interesting optical illusion.

Sphinx on Mars

But then a new message came. Shocking is even stronger. “Human Face”, “Sphinx” - which only idle lovers of science fiction and “fried” facts did not come up with.

An ordinary pile of stones photographed by the Viking-1 station in 1976. Again, with low optical resolution, complemented by a game of light gamut and imaginative persons who want to see traces of an alien mind everywhere.

Ice polar caps

One of the similarities in the physical and climatic processes taking place on Earth and Mars is the existence of ice "continents" in the polar regions.

Polar caps experience seasonal changes. If the North increases, then the South decreases and vice versa. The diameter of the stable part of the “headgear” of the North Pole reaches 1000 km. The thickness of the ice crust reaches 3.7 km. The maximum “head field run-up” reaches 50 degrees of the southern or northern latitude of Mars.

Interestingly, the South polar cap begins to “smoke” when heated. In connection with spring melting, there are peculiar geysers that emit carbon dioxide streams into the planet’s atmosphere along with sand, dust and dirt.

"Seas" and "continents"

The red planet has a curious feature: a significant difference in the geological structure of areas extending south and north from the equator. In the southern part of the hill dominate, there are many craters. It is darker - the "seas". The northern part, on the contrary: smooth light and low - "continents".

What is the reason for such a striking difference is not known. Experts believe that this could happen due to displacement of lithospheric plates or due to a space catastrophe.

Dry "rivers" and deep wells

With the equipping of the research process of the Martian surface with special equipment, the following evidence of the work of its water resources appears:

• Dry river beds.
• River channels protruding above the ground.
• River delta in the area of ​​the Eberswalde Crater, covering 115 km2. The length of the channel exceeds 60 km.
• Minerals formed by water.
• Ice deposits.
• Fresh traces of salt water.
• The remains of a dried-up water stream.
• Water-treated stones.
• An under-ice lake lying under an ice layer 1.5 km deep.

Interesting fact: wide and deep wells were found on Mars. With a diameter and length of more than 100 meters.

The soil

Without going into geological and chemical details, we can confidently say that "Martian soil is suitable for agricultural use." This is the opinion expressed by the American specialist S. Cunaves, after a series of laboratory studies. All the necessary components for the life of cultivated plants in the soil are available.

Interesting fact: Perhaps the most significant, landmark event in space research was the receipt of water from Martian soil by the Phoenix lander in 2008.

Why is Mars so called?

Mars got its name in honor of the Roman god of war, because of the red color. This shade really causes associations of fierce battles and merciless battles.
It is interesting to trace how, and in whose honor, they called the planet in antiquity:

• Egypt - “Dashr Mountains” (Red Mountains).
• Jews - “Maadim” (blushing).
• Babylon - "Nergal" (god of evil and the underworld, star of death).
• India - "Mangala" (god of war).
• Greece - “Ares” (god of war) or “Pyrois” (fiery).

Later, both satellites of the planet received the names of the sons of Ares: "Phobos" (fear) and "Deimos" (horror). Not only that: the most successful time for starting a war according to the ancient Roman canons is March. It is clear where the name of the first spring month came from.

Why is Mars red?

The reason for the reddish hue of the planet is iron oxide. Simply: rust, which makes up the bulk of the dust. It covers Mars with a layer from a few millimeters to two meters (Tharsis Highlands). Iron oxide with the help of winds creating ascending air currents rises into the atmosphere. It is visible from space.

In fact, the surface of Mars has a whole spectrum of colors: yellow, brown, golden, brown, red, green. It all depends on the chemical composition of the soil.

The spectral analysis carried out by the equipment installed on the Mars Express interplanetary space station gave an exhaustive answer to a riddle that had haunted the best minds of mankind for thousands of years.

Storm on Mars

The small size of Mars, a thin layer of the atmosphere, very low pressure - together lead to the constant appearance of winds. The planet is continuously blown by powerful streams flying at a speed reaching - 100 m / s. They reach a maximum at the beginning of summer, due to the huge temperature difference between the Northern and Southern hemispheres.

Huge streams of dust, weakly held by gravity, are involved in the process of the appearance of Martian storms.The power of air vortices circling the surface of an astronomical neighbor surpasses all known limits. When viewed from space, only yellow clouds are visible that envelop the entire planet.

The terms of the "life" of dust storms vary from 50 to 100 days. Sometimes, during the passage of perihelion (the point of orbit closest to the Sun), the phenomenon takes on a global character. This happens much more often than expected. Once during 1.88 Earth years.

Dust tornadoes

There is another interesting phenomenon that resembles an earth tornado. Dust tornadoes, otherwise called "dust devils." They are towers of dust, blowing the atmosphere with their vortex currents, and with it gases and water from the surface of Mars. The number of these vertical frantically rotating streams amounts to millions: one square kilometer of the area gives rise to a tornado every few seconds.

All would be fine, but storms and tornadoes due to dust friction create static discharges that adversely affect technical devices. During natural disasters, small grains of sand can enter the equipment. They also cover, “stick up” the working surfaces of solar panels and optical devices, thereby blocking the operation of research equipment.

Interesting fact: the failure of the Opportunity rover, the search for which was finally stopped on February 13, 2019, was a loss for all of humanity. Interest was fueled by the last “dramatic message from the device” on social networks, in which he informs about the decrease in the charge of his batteries and the upcoming darkness. For 15 years, the rover worked on the surface of Mars, but the storm and cold deprived him of the opportunity to get in touch.

Martian Attractions

Mars is rich in unique objects. Some of them are unique in the entire solar system. Future travelers will find something to see on a neighboring planet. Even a simple listing leaves a lasting impression.

Mount Olympus on Mars

Of course, the most iconic attraction is Mount Olympus with an extinct volcano. 26.2 km high, up to 85 km wide. The crater is deepened to 3 km.

Canyons of the Mariner Valley

Canyons of the Mariner Valley, up to 3 thousand kilometers long. Its pearl is the deepest - up to 8 km, a gorge called the Geba canyon. The process of its formation remains a mystery.
Labyrinth of the Night, so named because of its own form, representing a system of canyons.

The set of long-inactive volcanoes of Elysium. Fancy morphological structures: Medusa Fossa, Spider, Lace, Channel Patterns. "Frozen traces of droplet impacts" - craters with a diameter of up to 16 km. A peculiar mystery are deposits in the equator. For some reason, they do not reflect radio waves?! Practically, absolutely vertical ice rocks in the vicinity of the poles.

The endless wealth of forms and landscapes of a unique planet can satisfy the tastes of the most sophisticated futurist artist. And the existing "white spots" of Mars are waiting for their discoverers.

Is there life on Mars?

A rhetorical question that has not yet been answered. There are a number of favorable circumstances. Among them:

• The presence of water.
• The presence of methane and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
• Saturation of the soil with minerals and trace elements.
• Periodic occurrence of positive temperatures.
• Electric discharges.

On the other hand, there are many unfavorable circumstances:

• A high degree of irradiation of the planet’s surface with “Solar wind” and “Cosmic rays”. The radiation level on Mars is hundreds of times higher than on Earth.
• Constant water leakage.
• Low average temperature.
• Difficult climatic conditions: storms, hurricanes, tornadoes.
• Presence of chemicals incompatible with biological structures.

To date, no signs of the existence of microorganisms on Mars have been found. There are no organic substances on the Red Planet.

Interesting fact: a series of experiments was conducted on the cultivation in Martian conditions (artificially reproduced in laboratories) of bacteria, algae, lichens. The results are positive. One of the microorganisms was able to adapt to the new climate better than to the earth.

Perhaps somewhere in the caves and crevices of Mars were or continue to exist conditions for the emergence of life. The question remains open.

Satellites of mars

The closest space neighbor to us has two satellites: Phobos and Deimos.

Physical and orbital parameters of Mars satellites

The past and future of Martian satellites

The views of space researchers on the origin of satellites are contradictory. Perhaps in the past they were asteroids drawn by the planet; the version of their occurrence during the collision is not ruled out.

As for the future, then scientists are unanimous: Phobos faces destruction, which could lead to the creation of a planetary ring around Mars. Its components will gradually collapse on the planet. Deimos has different perspectives, as it is gradually moving away from Mars.

Interesting fact: long before the discovery of Phobos and Deimos by the American A. Hall in August 1877, their existence was predicted by: D. Swift, F. Voltaire. The Anglo-Irish writer, who created the famous "Gulliver's Travels", in his book indicated the orbits and periods of revolution of the satellites. True, not entirely accurate. Grateful descendants immortalized the names of the seers, assigning them to two craters on the surface of Deimos.

History of the study of Mars

Observation of our closest cosmic neighbor began by the Egyptians in antiquity. Later joined: the Babylonians, Greeks, Indians, Chinese. Arab astronomers also contributed. Astronomical treatises and reports of that time dealt with simple measurements and regular tracking of planetary motion.

Slenderness in the geometry of the solar system was made by medieval scientists. The heliocentric system of Copernicus placed the Sun and planets in their places.

With the advent of telescopes, a new stage in the study of Mars began. The first to master the technique of instrumental research Galileo Galilei. His work was continued: Giovanni Cassini, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler. Maps of the Martian surface of Huygens and Schiaparelli appeared. The satellites of the Red Planet were discovered, accurate calculations were performed. The work of astronomical observatories continues today.

A new round of research began with the launch of space rockets and vehicles. The era of rivalry between the USSR and the USA began. For 9 times interplanetary space stations were poisoned to Mars for the purpose of orbiting research, casting probes and landing rovers. Eight missions are now actively working, and in the near future plans send seven more.

• 1960 year. the USSR. The Marsnik program fails. “Mars 1960A” and “Mars 1960B” were lost due to the accident on the “Lightning” rocket.
• 1962-63 year. Mars 1962A and Mars 1962B. The booster stage did not turn on. "Mars-1" flies along the planet. But even earlier, communication with the device was lost.
• 1964 year. "Probe-2" flies past the planet (Missed .. I thought this is only now possible approx.ed.).
• USA. Mariner-3 crashes: the solar panels were not opened, the head fairing did not separate. Mariner-4 takes the first photographs.
• 1969 year. “Mars 1969A” and “Mars 1969B” did not fulfill their mission due to an accident that occurred with a booster rocket.
• USA. Mariner-6 and Mariner-7 explored the Martian atmosphere and took photographs.
• 1971 year. Cosmos-419 crashes when the launch vehicle launches. "Mars-2" crashed when approaching the surface of the planet. “Mars-3” made its first soft landing, but immediately lost touch. USA. “Mariner-8” is another launch vehicle accident. “Mariner-9” is the first artificial satellite of Mars, which performed the mapping of its surface.
• 1973 year. "Mars-4" does not enter a given orbit. Mars 7 flies past. "Mars-5" photographs the surface from orbit. Soon there was a depressurization of the instrument compartment."Mars-6" lands on the surface, but does not communicate.
• 1976 year. Viking-1 and Viking-2 are successfully conducting research on the Martian surface.
• 1988 year. Phobos-1 and Phobos-2. The first devices for the study of the satellites of Mars. The first one lost contact, the second took 37 photos of Phobos.
• 1992 year. Mars Observer is not communicating.
• 1996 year. Russia. "Mars-96" failure of the upper stage of the rocket.
• USA. The Mars Global Surveyor is one of the most successful raids on Mars, during which photographs of the tracks of the Mars rover and artificial space satellite were obtained. Mars Passfinder and the Sojorner rover performed a set of studies to test the descent to the surface of Mars, and also launched the first successful rover.
• 1998 year. Japan. Nozomi fails to enter Martian orbit.
• 1999 year. Three unsuccessful attempts to operate a single functional of three spacecraft: two accidents, plus loss of communication. The climate study complex did not fulfill the task assigned to it.
• year 2001. “Mars Odyssey” is a working artificial satellite.
• 2003 year. Spirit is a rover that worked until 2010. Opportunity is the champion among Mars rovers. 15 years of work. European Union. Beagle 2 lost contact after landing. Mars Express is an active artificial satellite.
• 2005 year. The Martian reconnaissance satellite continues to fulfill its assigned functions.
• 2007 year The Phoenix landed in the vicinity of the pole and found water on Mars.
• 2011. Russia - China. Phobos-Grunt and Inho-1 crashed at the exit from Earth orbit. "Curiosity" is a working rover.

• year 2013. “Evolution of the atmosphere and volatiles on Mars” is an active artificial satellite.
• India. Mangalyan is currently an artificial satellite.
• 2016 year. European Union. The Schiaparelli crashed while landing.
• European Union and Russia. Trace Gus Orbiter is a working research satellite of Mars.
• 2018 year. NASA’s widescreen mission consisting of three objects: an apparatus with a seismometer and two “cubsat” (mini-satellites). Purpose: the creation of sustainable communications in space and the implementation of monitoring and control functions. The project was completed successfully in early 2019.

Martian studies are experiencing a real "boom". In 2020, 7 missions are planned. A number of countries should take part in them: USA, Russia, China, India, Japan, United Arab Emirates, Finland, Spain. The European Union also has intentions.

Colonization of Mars

By 2030 - 2033, such major players as NASA USA, Roscosmos Russia, and the European Space Agency are considering launching a spacecraft with a crew on board. The United Arab Emirates is developing a project "Mars-2117" - a kind of future colony of earthly aliens.

He has interests in this field a number of private organizations. Especially active is Ilon Musk, founder of the SpaceX space corporation. He aggressively promotes his commercial projects, accompanied by promising financially considerations.

There are many problems and difficulties, but the goals are incredibly tempting. Who does not want to be the first person to set foot on Mars! Already being recruited into space crews. It is possible that some of the future astronauts will be able to repeat the "small step" of the famous Neil Armstrong.